Ac hipot test formula. Product Description. AC/DC Hipot with Insulation Resistance Testing. The AT5600 is designed to meet the transformer testing requirements of IEC 62368-1 and IEC 61010-1 and the UL equivalents. This procedure is essential for detecting potential The easiest and most economical way to AC high voltage field test high capacitance loads, like cables and motors/generators, is to use a VLF AC hipot. A frequency of 0. Hipot Basics Mar 23, 2023 · It is an acronym for High Potential Test, otherwise known as Dielectric Withstand Test. Get Datasheet. #2. Jul 14, 2014. ”) The IEC standards allow the test Portable AC Hipot Tester | Hipotronics | HubbellDiscover the portable AC hipot tester from Hipotronics, a reliable and easy-to-use device for high voltage testing. the DC high potential test or DC hipot test; 3. Aug 8, 2022 · Aug 5, 2022 at 20:19. Order online from Hubbell store. AC Hipot testing is the effective and direct way to test insulation strength for electric equipments,apparatus or machines. Ideally the DUT should be isolated from the operator and tester. Use a megger to test the insulation parameters of each phase of the cable, and carry out the ultra-low frequency withstand voltage test only after the test is qualified. , located in Wuhan, China, is a professional manufacturer specialized in electrical safety testing equipment, especially high voltage testing equipment since the year of 2003. If testing one hot stick, a 10 or 20 mA rated AC hipot would be sufficient. Typical applications include testing of transformers, switchgear, cables, capacitors,aerial motors platforms,hot sticks bucket VLF stands for Very Low Frequency. Desirable dielectric withstand test features. was selected long ago as the standard frequency to be used for VLF testing. hipot testing is likely to cause damage to field aged XLP or EPR cables. Apr 15, 2023 · Hipot testing, short for “high potential,” involves putting electronic devices through rigorous voltage and current stress to ensure they can handle extreme conditions. It involves applying a higher-than-normal voltage to a device or component to assess its insulation integrity and overall safety. Standard peak voltage is 1. AC output - 5 kV, 12 mA. (as per IEC 60502-2, 2014) Among total 12Nos 33kV Cables, only 4Nos Cables are passed the Hi-Pot Test and others failed. the very low frequency high potential test (VLF hipot test); 4. May 31, 2022 · However, if a DC hipot test is used on an AC circuit, the hipot voltage should be two times the peak, that is (2 x 1. AC and DC hipot tests are also useful to understand the condition of aged insulation for machines in service May 1, 2001 · For more than 30 years, he has been involved in the design, development, and manufacture of high-voltage products including transformers, power supplies, and safety testing instruments. 01 Hz. Join us as we give you a deeper understanding of AC/DC Hipot testing, then show you a live demo! Associated VLF ac voltage testing methods utilize ac signals at frequencies in the range of 0. Hipot test is the most common type of electrical safety test. Rugged and lightweight, the 295 is a portable device that makes testing easier than ever. The applied test voltage is raised in steps, with measurements first taken up to 0. 5μƒ of cable load at 0. Performed by stressing the insulation of the product far beyond what it would encounter during normal use. 10% of respondents specify dry and/ or drained condition and one specifies wet/dry. 5% of reading (with voltmeter 500 V or higher, Ammeter 1 mA or higher) Rise/Fall time control function The Keylock function AC or AC / DC / IR. High Pot tests performed on medium voltage cables, switchgear, vacuum The dielectric withstand test, also known as the high potential (HIPOT) test, measures an application’s voltage strength. Hipot Test Procedure. VLF ac test voltages with cosinerectangular and the sinusoidal wave shapes are most commonly used. AC Hipot. Applied Raychem Elastmold Termination kit. 01 – 0. a unit area, which is used as the unit of arc magnitude. During the Hi-pot Test upto 76kV DC (for 15 minutes), the cable has been tripped continuously before reach to 15minutes. Typically this is VCC and GND layers or combinations of split planes. The other uses a hipot tester to check for insulation breakdown. 0001–1 Hz may be useful for diagnosing cable systems that exceed the limitations of the test system at 0. Model 298. Using a VLF AC Hipot, the test voltage is applied to the cable while the tan delta controller takes measurements. Any dielectric properties would not change much between DC and 50 Hz. VLF systems are advantageous in that they can be manufactured to be small and lightweight; making them useful – especially for field testing where transport and space can be issues. Mr. current) must be note down in every steps until its final duration. I= 2 pi f C e, where f= test frequency, C= Capacitance per km, e= applied voltage phase to neutral, kV. 058E-5) + 1. DC output - 6 kV, 5 mA. Jul 13, 2017 · Production hipot testing of a product should not exceed 1,500 V ac, or its DC-rectified equivalent of 2,121 V dc, from input to output or input to ground. 10% use AC hipot SCI 297 - AC/DC Hipot with Insulation Resistance Testing. This is why DC hipot test is more prone to flash overs and corona discharges. 1 Hz; however, frequencies in the range of 0. • Circuit breaker in open position: Mar 22, 2024 · Hipot testing, short for high potential or high voltage testing, is a critical step in the manufacturing process of electrical equipment and systems. One of our most popular products, it is used worldwide for substation testing and other applications. 2 No. Somebody would need to double check Aug 30, 2011 · AC hipot tests are conducted using special testers that measure leakage currents with high voltage. Typically performed on cables, circuit boards, and similar electrical components, hipot tests provide insight into the insulating properties of electrical devices. The cable to be tested must be de-energized and each end isolated. For two-wire products, the high voltage is applied between the primary circuits and accessible conductive parts (or foil wrapped around accessible non-conductive parts). Its working principles are shown as below: 5. 5E is used by 27%, DC hipot tests at 1. For 230 VAC or dual voltage drives, the hi-pot voltage is 1,500 VAC. A distinction must be made here regarding the test of dielectrics vs the high voltage test of individual nets. 3. VLF hipots are also widely used for testing newly installed and/or repaired cable before reenergizing to insure the cable is sound and for testing critical cable runs. When using ac test voltage, the insulation in question is being stressed most when the voltage is at its The Dielectric Voltage-Withstand Test is commonly known as the Hipot test. on the fingertip for 1 second. output-voltage of AC hipot testing : 5kV/100mA(500VA) Measurement range of insulation resistance testing : 25V to 1000V(7 steps), 500V or greater, up to 5. Data centers are a necessity in a closely connected world. The voltage applied to the control is usually equal to 1,000 volts, plus two times the line voltage rating of the drive. 25 E to 1. 4 (1 Review) | Model: SCI 297. 1 cal/cm2 of energy is equivalent to a lit cigarette butt. These hipots provide continuously adjustable AC voltage used for a pass/fail, AC over-voltage withstand test on high voltage apparatus, like switchgear, circuit breakers, reclosers, vacuum bottles, hot sticks, bus duct, and any other apparatus needing an Test the insulation strength of electrical apparatus with the 100kV Digital AC Hipot Tester, a modern and accurate solution with extensive safety features. One uses a megohmmeter to measure insulation resistance. My hipot tester is Quadtech Sentry 500VA. 5038E-4 It is the data behind the hipot test that can help Feb 9, 2024 · What is the test voltage and formular for hipot testing? The formula for the hipot test is twice the normal operating voltage plus 1000 volt. provides Hi Pot testing services on cables to help drastically reduce the percentage of failure, ultimately saving time, money, and the safety of employees. The reason for adding 1000V is that of the various degrees of high power surges the insulator will pass during use. odel TD-65E nput T A D F D Compare. 1 Hz. Apr 23, 2024 · A HIPOT test, or high potential test, is a high voltage test that is made to test the voltage withstand capability of the insulation of the GIS. Some are designed with input Dec 3, 2010 · The voltage applied on the test cable is several times higher than AC hipot. All terminations, splices Jul 14, 2014 · Location. 1Hz. 5U0, or one half of normal line to ground operating voltage. Generally, a product that operates at voltages of 120-240 V ac is tested at 1,000 V plus two times the operating voltage. Because cables act as capacitors, leakage readings are effective in determining the current flow. This will give you the anticipated leakage current I (in amps). 4 x RMS) + 1000V (see Figure 3). The test can be performed as a simple “Go, No-Go” The majority of safety standards allow the use of either ac or dc voltage for a hipot test. Using the formula I = 377VC, find the leakage current I (in amps) by multiplying the voltage that your hipot test is conducted at (V) by the capacitance you measured between line and ground (C), and multiplying that product by 377. The Sentry 19071 for AC Hipot testing; and the Sentry 19073, which combines both AC and DC Hipot with insulation resistance (IR) measurements into a single compact unit. Hipot test voltage may be specified as either ac or dc. Therefore, 1500 V is a common hipot test voltage. This test gives a higher leakage current reading because a cable can act as a Hipot tester is used for both AC and DC tests. The test duration must be in accordance with the safety standard being used. , Ltd. Meanwhile, it has many monitoring and protection functions. Standard models are available from 10 kV AC – 100 kV AC with ratings from 1 kVA – 3 kVA. During hipot tests, technicians apply high voltage to Hipot Test for Water-Cooled Machines: This new question in the 2007 survey got no response from 34 % respondents. Ac Hipot Test Formula Manufacturers, Factory, Suppliers From China, Our hugely specialized process eliminates the component failure and offers our consumers unvarying high quality, allowing us to control cost, plan capacity and maintain consistent on time delivery. All of the world's safety agencies require a Dielectric Withstanding Voltage test (also known as a Hipot or Electric Strength test). It only takes 1-2 cal/cm2 to cause second-degree burns to human skin. Continuously adjustable test voltage from zero to rated voltage. $3,999. Aug 1, 2017 · The hi-pot test applies a relatively high voltage between the primary circuits and the protective grounding conductor. 05~6kV. , air). Designed to verify that the insulation of a product is adequate enough to withstand high voltage. Aug 8, 2022 at 19:30. An over-voltage is a voltage higher than the peak operating (line-to-line) voltage of the device under test (DUT). Applying this formula: High Limit = 3(1. 414 = For DC RMS conversion. Technical parameter. There are some well-defined guides and standards regarding factory testing of medium voltage shielded cables in laboratories provided by IEEE, IEC, ANSI/ICEA, and CSA. Therefore, the standard hi-pot voltage for 115 VAC drives is 1,250 VAC. 00298. e. Channels. Figure 4 - HVTS 70/50 Oct 15, 2014 · For example, if your product had an insulation resistance of 100 megohms, a capacitance of 0. , Inc. Rated capacity:5kVA. Using this rule, a 120 V ac powered unit would be tested at 1,240 V ac. This test is used to determine the adequacy of the equipment's insulation mechanisms to protect against electrical shock. Every KB AC and SEFELEC 506-S performing hipot test displays real and total currents AC or DC hipot tests To avoid having to distinguish between reactive and real currents, it is possible to perform dielectric strength tests with a DC voltage. These tests are carried out in whole or in part of the winding, to test the ground Time Duration for HIPOT Test. S. 5 kV @ 12 mA AC Hipot, 6 kV @ 5 mA DC Hipot with Insulation Resistance Tester, CE Listed. 220V AC power input is given to the Autotransformer through a control box, and autotransformer Jun 8, 2023 · The HIPOT testing system measures high-voltage currents in everyday applications and more specialized military equipment and infrastructure. It’s just an AC hipot but with a lower frequency output. While the concept of this test is simple, the application (except at the Mar 13, 2016 · Therefore, if we use dc test voltage, we ensure that the dc test voltage is under root 2 (or 1. Dielectric Withstand Test, commonly called the Hi-Pot Test. Unlike AC & DC Hipot voltages, very low-frequency testing does not damage good insulation. Since hipot stress is generally considered to be greatest Feb 20, 2017 · 1. Hi-Pot by definition via TM-650 is the 100-200 kVA Low Power Motor Test Systems for Testing AC/DC Motors up to 1,000 HP Phenix Technologies has established worldwide recognition as the leading manufacturer 300-1000 kVA D-Series Motor Test Systems for Testing AC/DC Motors up to 5,000 HP Jun 20, 2018 · Very low frequency (VLF) withstand testing is the application of an AC sinusoidal waveform, generally at 0. First of all, the cable which is to be tested is isolated completely from both ends. 414 or 2121 V dc. View Details. Give in details Answer / manikandan n. 1 Hz, up to 5. Do you have no active parts at all? High Voltage PFT-301CM 30k Vac @ 1kVA Portable AC Hipot Tester. For low-voltage power circuit breakers, you can use a 2,500V megohmmeter for this test. 500 VA, 5 kV @ 100 mA AC Hipot, Ground Continuity, CE Listed. It relies on several AC and DC voltage measurements that inform of weak points such as corrosion or faulty wiring. The tester should be at least three inches away from the wall to provide proper airflow for the unit. AC: 0. Mar 28, 2019 · However, if a DC hipot test is used on an AC circuit, the hipot voltage should be two times the peak (2 x 1. Dec 1, 2011 · We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. This line of Electrical Safety testers is equipped with innovations that allow Cal/cm2 (calories per square centimeter) refers to the total energy on. As a part of the test, it entails applying high voltage to assets to determine whether the electrical insulation is enough to withstand Jun 1, 2010 · Leakage from an AC test is made up of resistive and reactive current. Jun 4, 2013 · My field testing experience is that calculated theoretical leakage curent and actual test results are orders of magnitude apart mostly due to leakage at the terminations and test connections. 1 Hz and lower. Oct 22, 2012 · Placing a high DC voltage across a circuit breaker’s insulation system stresses it so that moisture, dirt, tracking, and weak insulation can be detected. If the hipot testing is likely to cause damage to field aged XLP or EPR cables. S. The PFT-503CM and PFT-503CMF are from our popular PFT Series of field portable AC hipot test sets. 00GΩ Insulation Resistance test High-precision measurement ±1. Hipot tests are used for everything from very low voltage devices to high voltage equipment. Whether your application requires an AC Hipot test, DC Hipot test, or Insulation Resistance test, The Hypot Series Dielectric Withstand Tester provides a simple solution for you. AC Hipot test • AC hipot test is conducted by application of 1500 or 3000 volts at 60 Hz AC and leakage current is monitored. The Sentry 19070 Hipot Tester series provides 2 models to choose from. We TEST for various kinds of electrical products, such as Transformers, Circuit Breakers, Surge Arresters, Generators, Insulators, Cables . HV Hipot Electric Co. Example, For a working voltage of 220 V, the formular will be (220 × 2 + 1000) = 1440 V. SCI is a manufacturer of electrical safety testing instruments including electrical safety testers, AC/DC hipot testers, ground bond testers. • Hipot tester issues failure indication when leakage current exceeds predefined threshold. 0025 uF, and hi-pot test voltage 1500 volts rms, the required hi-pot tester output current would be: The same product with a line filter would require about ten times the natural current, or about 15 milliamperes at 1500 volts. performs high potential testing via VLF (Very Low Freqency AC Hipot) or other DC hipot testing. A VLF hipot, and VLF testing, is very simple. The current rating of an AC hipot is determined by the capacitance of the load. AC hipot test is done by applying a high AC voltage on the test conductor and measuring the leakage current. General Testing Information DC Hi-Pot Testing monitors the ability of the cable’s insulation to withstand a specific voltage for a specific length of time. I am testing a dielectric made of PEEK and alumina. May 18, 2024 · AC HiPot testing, short for Alternating Current High Potential testing, is a method employed to evaluate the insulation integrity of electrical components and equipment. For a working voltage of 220 V, the rule of thumb test voltage is (2 × 220 + 1000) = 1440 V. Davis 0 – 30 kV AC Power Frequency AC Hipot. Abstract - Overvoltage tests, also known as high potential or "Hi-Pot", are used frequently to ensure the minimum dielectric strength of the insulation system. Learn more about its features and benefits at Hubbell. 00. The GIS must be installed completely and gas-filled at rated filling density during the test. Technical Advice Request. Interesting. 25kV DC, 10kV AC Hipot. A typical rule of thumb is 110 to 120% of 2U + 1000 V for 1–2 seconds. Adjustable Overload from 10 to 110% of rated current output. 01Hz to 1 Hz. 41 x RMS voltage. While other wave shapes are available for testing of cable VLF cable testing (Very Low Frequency) is a technique for testing of medium and high voltage (MV and HV) cables. The first IR test provides a nominal resistance value for a material under test and the hipot test imposes stress on this material. Cannot Ship Air. All specialized tools and testing devices are prepared and testing parameters are set to align with IEC 60950 specifications, equipment requirements, safety Keep the test voltage to 8 KV for 10 minutes and note down the leakage current The reading (voltage vs. The PWM amp system provides highly-stable output Max. After 10 minutes duration gradually reduce the voltage until the reading is nil and execute proper discharging of the cable. AC hipot tests at E to 1. Because the inherent capacitance of a power cable Picking the Right Hipot Tester for the Job Understanding the testing requirements and standards will ultimately save testing time and cost. Mar 22, 2020 · DC HI-POT TEST. Disconnect all electrical equipment connected to the tested cable. Depending on the test object and how many are to be tested at once, the capacitance of the load may be quite high. It is not a destructive test, nor does it degrade materials. Jul 22, 2019 · In this video we discuss AC and DC Hipot Testing. Chase Fell Technical Education Committee Chair Jay Industrial Repair High potential (hipot) testing procedures for motor and generator windings are usually performed with 50/60 Hz AC or DC as the power source. To learn more about how the iTIG is used for surge comparison tests, see Surge Test Summary and Surge Test Methods. Jan 4, 2021 · There are two common methods for performing insulation tests on cables, wiring and electrical equipment. This is primarily due to the availability of other test methods and the high levels of power consumption Nov 9, 2015 · The hi-pot test should be the last test conducted after all repairs have been made, cleanup is finished, and the insulation resistance test has been successfully passed. How much kv we have to Apply . The test time for most standards, including products covered under IEC 60950, is 1 minute. The most widely accepted test frequency is 0. AC "leakage" is the cable charging current. Check the specifications of the hipot tester you This page describes the three main standards used for surge test voltages. E. This makes cable free of any possible residual charges and safe to work. DC hipot testing, on the other hand, measures cable insulation resistance with high voltage current. A DC Hi-Pot test is not capable of locating the point of failure, rather it gives you an assessment of the whole system. VLF is generally considered to be 0. For testing 33kv cable hipot testing. 01 Hz to 1 Hz. Shielded output cable. In the applicable standard, the IEC 62271-203, the test is also called power-frequency voltage test. GDYD series AC Hipot Test Set is composed of manual control unit and AC Dry testing transformer (HV unit) which output AC voltage smoothly. May 2, 2018 · VLF testing is performed with an AC hi-pot at a frequency ranging from 0. These hipots provide continuously adjustable AC voltage used for a pass/fail, AC over-voltage withstand test on high voltage apparatus, like switchgear, circuit breakers, reclosers, vacuum bottles, hot sticks, bus duct, and any other apparatus needing an AC test voltage. Many people assign too much mystery to VLF testing. The procedure of VLF testing is similar to DC Hipot testing. AC Hipot Testing There are no widely accepted test standards for AC hipot testing of cables, and power frequency AC hipot testing of cable systems is rarely performed. In electrical engineering, a dielectric withstand test (or pressure test, high potential or hipot test) is an electrical safety test performed on a component or product to determine the effectiveness of its insulation. Hipot testing is a critical step in validating the quality of new windings. Medium-voltage circuit breakers require the use of a high-potential test set. And all three phases of the cable are discharged using earth rods. Find the best Hipot testers for AC testing with Hipotronics, the trusted leader in high voltage test and measurement solutions. 1 Hz, to assess the quality of electrical insulation in high capacitive loads, such as cables. The VLF-34E pictured here is a 34 kV (peak) unit that is capable of testing from 0. 4 x RMS) + 1000V. Nov 26, 2018 · The test station should have sufficient space for the tester and the DUT without the operator having to reach over the DUT to access the tester. If you have any way of accurately measuring the capacitance of the equipment under test, then you could calculate the amount of capacitive reactance, and your VARs, and then you'd be able to tell what component of your test current was actually leakage in real power. 01 to 1 Hz. 05~5kV. During the test cables are subjected to a test voltage significantly higher than what they experience during normal operating conditions. The advantage of this method is that the influence of the reactive current The SCI (Slaughter) 295 is a 5 kV AC hipot tester. If the cable can handle the high voltage, you can consider it as a pass. The most common frequency is 0. By Kevin Clark, CEO, Vitrek Hipot testers offer a range of capabilities starting with dielectric withstand and insulation resistance testing but also, in many instances, providing accurate low-resistance Sep 26, 2023 · A hipot test, also known as a high potential (or “high pot”) test, is used to check for electrical insulation integrity and detect any insulation flaws in electrical components. Both apply a high voltage, either ac or dc, to the device under test (DUT) and measure the resulting current flow. Portland, ME. Set the test voltage value: Umax = 3uo, where uo is the rated phase voltage of the cable. If there is a rise in the current, then this Portable AC Hipot Tester is a versatile and user-friendly device for testing high voltage equipment. Electrical insulation can be tested with a hipot tester to make sure it can withstand the device’s load and prevent electric shock from occurring during regular operation Nov 8, 2021 · You can perform this test with an AC Hipot at a frequency ranging between 0. March 22nd, 2020. For example, for a 1500-V-ac voltage, the equivalent dc voltage to produce the same amount of stress on the insulation would be 1500 x 1. For DC Hipot test the applied voltage calculating formula is equal to (2E+1000)*1. The final IR test in this example is performed to determine the affect, if any, the hipot test has on the insulation resistance. These standards do not require power for production hi-pot testing of the transformers, but only specify the test voltage and duration of test ( also referred to as the “dwell time. It is through access to 220V or 380V AC power to regulate the voltage regulator (that is the input voltage of the test transformers), and to obtain the required value of test high voltage. These hipots provide continuously adjustable AC voltage used for a pass/fail, AC over-voltage withstand test on high voltage apparatus, like switchgear, circuit breakers, reclosers Hi-Pot or Dielectric Withstanding testing is designed to validate the insulation between atypical plane or potential layers. The most commonly used, commercially available VLF ac voltage test frequency is 0. The Hypot Series raises the bar in safety and efficiency for the Hipot Testing industry. Output Capability. Zero start interlock ensures that the voltage control is at zero before HV can be energized. Figure 3: Hipot is applied to both conductors and leakage is measured in the return circuit through the ground connection. Oh, PEEK, my favorite plastic. Compare. We have all used AC hipots for decades to test various types of equipment. Unlike DC HiPot testing, which uses direct current, AC HiPot testing involves applying a high-voltage alternating current to the device under scrutiny. 414) times the ac test voltage, so the value of the dc voltage is equal to the ac voltage peaks. This is primarily due to the availability of other test methods and the high levels of power consumption The test gives the manufacturer reassurance that its insulation inside the chassis or housing can handle power spikes associated with alternating current (AC) as well as electrical shock from devices with “patient leads” or “applied parts” where the patient may come in contact with the electrical device’s surface. the AC high potential test which is performed at power frequency (50 hertz or 60 hertz). As the voltage to the net is ramped up, charge accumulates on the net-under-test in an amount proportional to the net’s The IEC 60950 Hipot testing procedure consists of the following steps: Preparation: the test subject is disconnected from peripherals and accessories and a solid ground is verified. It checks dangeous flaws which assure electric equipment continuous working. • Good AC hipot tester has ramp up/ramp down rate and application time. Nov 1, 2017 · The dielectric strength (hi-pot) test is a test of the electric strength of one or more insulations. For example, the PFT-503CM is the only single piece, 50 kV AC @ 3 kVA, shielded cable output hipot on the market. In the industrial sector, this test is used quite frequently. The PFT-301CM and PFT-301CMF are from our popular PFT Series of field portable AC hipot test sets. Hipot tests include – DC Hipot Test and AC Hipot Test. 1. 80% = test conduct in site at second time. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. Hipot, 25kV DC, 10kV AC, includes HTL-S. INTRODUCTION. The electric strength of an insulation is proportional to the distance through the insulating medium (whether solid insulation or gaseous insulation, i. Five programmable memories, with 10 optional. Procedures for the hi-pot test of the circuit breaker are as follows: • The test connection for the hi-pot test is as shown in Figure 7. 2. The hipot test is used to determine whether the ground wall can handle an over-voltage situation. Input:220V±10% single phase,50hz. thumb for establishing the hipot test voltage is two times the working voltage + 1000V. 414* (80/100) E = system voltage. DC: 0. 0 μƒ at 0. These guides cover AC withstand and PD testing of XLPE and EPR cables and accessories, such as 50/60Hz AC Hipot and PD tests which are routinely conducted on every reel of cable produced at the factory. – Ybx Nop. Part of the SCI 290 series, these testers are designed to simplify every aspect of safety testing for operators of all comfort levels. Concerns during Hi-Pot Test. Electric strength can be tested with either ac or dc. Mar 16, 2018 · Hipot testing is a process of applying high voltage to a net (or network of wires) in a cable, holding the voltage for a specified amount of time, then reducing the voltage back to zero before moving to the next net. 7(2E+1) by 27%, and ‘either of AC or DC test’ by 10%. 18. xw xh ox sq py ib mq wt eh yt